Developing countries
In this section
Commodity extraction
Debt
Breast milk substitutes
Access to medicines
Tobacco marketing
The issue
Concern over the impact of companies in developing countries can include many factors:
Commodity extraction
There is concern at the speed and manner in which natural commodities such as oil and timber are extracted from developing countries by western corporations, often at prices favourable to the wealthier nations and with limited positive impacts for the developing country itself. Dependence by a developing country on a narrow export base of commodities can also exacerbate its poverty when prices fall.High profile cases have raised concerns of the possibility of human rights abuses, negative impacts on communities and the pollution of natural resourcesthat can occur without strict regulation and codes of conduct.
Debt
The origins of the Third World debt crisis can be traced to inappropriate lending by many banks during the 1970s. Money was frequently lent to unviable prestige projects or was wasted by corruption, leaving many countries with no means of repaying the original debt. Since the 1990s, campaigning NGOs working on debt issues have focused far less on private bank debt and more on intergovernmental issues relating to the IMF and World Bank bonds.
Breast milk substitutes
The inappropriate promotion of breast milk substitutes in developing countries is regarded as a major cause for concern by the World Health Organisation and UNICEF. As well as imposing a financial burden on poor people, substitutes are known to be generally less effective than breast milk in helping infants build up necessary immunities. They can also be dangerous where people do not have access to clean water to formulate the milk.
In 1981 WHO developed a strict code of marketing practice to outlaw the inappropriate marketing of breast milk substitutes.
Access to medicines
The issue of access to medicines for the developing world has become pressing in recent years. In 2001 a global public outcry forced some drug companies to drop their suit against the South African government for allowing cheaper versions of patented drugs.
The principle reason for the lack of access to medicines is poverty, which denies people access to food, clean water, sanitation and basic healthcare. Poor health is in many cases a consequence of poverty and also a major cause of poverty. This causes a vicious cycle which seriously destabilises economies. However, according to NGOs, in many cases high drug prices, often the result of strong intellectual property protection, is a major barrier. NGOs have argued that pricing, patents, public-private partnerships and research and development are the main ways to increase access to medicines in the developing world.
Tobacco marketing
In some countries the spread of tobacco, with its many negative health consequences, has begun to be checked by improved health education, public restrictions on sale and advertising and the impact of litigation. Globally though, particularly in developing countries, sales of tobacco are continuing to grow. Much of this growth in developing countries is aided by marketing methods aimed at the young, which are outlawed elsewhere.
reference
:http://www.charitysri.org/for_charities/developing_countries.html
2010년 10월 18일 월요일
Unicef : Millennium Development Goals
Unicef : Millennium Development Goals
06~08.09.2000 , New York, Millennium Declaration.
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
: Reduce half percentage of poor people who live with $1 per a day.
Around twelve hundred million people are living with under $1 per a day.
2. Achieve univeral primary education.
: Provide education system to learn every children at elementary school.
Around 11,300,000 children don't go to school in the world.
3. Promote gender equality.
: Eliminate sexual discrimination in every school by 2015.
Two thirds of illiteracy are women in the world.
Also, 80% of displaced person is women.
4. Reduce child mortality.
: Reduce the mortality rate of under 5 ages by two thrids.
5. Improve maternal health.
: Reduce the maternal mortality rate by three fourthes.
Approximately, 2 percentage of childern are dying in developing countries.
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other disease.
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop a global partnership for development.
06~08.09.2000 , New York, Millennium Declaration.
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
: Reduce half percentage of poor people who live with $1 per a day.
Around twelve hundred million people are living with under $1 per a day.
2. Achieve univeral primary education.
: Provide education system to learn every children at elementary school.
Around 11,300,000 children don't go to school in the world.
3. Promote gender equality.
: Eliminate sexual discrimination in every school by 2015.
Two thirds of illiteracy are women in the world.
Also, 80% of displaced person is women.
4. Reduce child mortality.
: Reduce the mortality rate of under 5 ages by two thrids.
5. Improve maternal health.
: Reduce the maternal mortality rate by three fourthes.
Approximately, 2 percentage of childern are dying in developing countries.
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other disease.
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop a global partnership for development.
2010년 10월 12일 화요일
Inventor's 2020 vision: to help 1bn of the world's poorest see better
Professor pioneers DIY adjustable glasses that do not need an optician
(1178)
Esther Addley
The Guardian, Monday 22 December 2008
Article history
A Zulu man wearing adaptive glasses. Photograph: Michael Lewis It was a chance conversation
on March 23 1985 ("in the afternoon, as I recall") that first started Josh Silver on his quest to
make the world's poor see. A professor of physics at Oxford University, Silver was idly discussing optical lenses with a colleague, wondering whether they might be adjusted without the need for expensive specialist equipment, when the lightbulb of inspiration first flickered above his head.
What if it were possible, he thought, to make a pair of glasses which, instead of requiring an
optician, could be "tuned" by the wearer to correct his or her own vision? Might it be possible
to bring affordable spectacles to millions who would never otherwise have them?
More than two decades after posing that question, Silver now feels he has the answer. The British inventor has embarked on a quest that is breathtakingly ambitious, but which he insists is achievable - to offer glasses to a billion of the world's poorest people by 2020.
Some 30,000 pairs of his spectacles have already been distributed in 15 countries, but to Silver
that is very small beer. Within the next year the now-retired professor and his team plan to
launch a trial in India which will, they hope, distribute 1 million pairs of glasses.
The target, within a few years, is 100 million pairs annually. With the global need for basic
sight-correction, by his own detailed research, estimated at more than half the world's population, Silver sees no reason to stop at a billion.
If the scale of his ambition is dazzling, at the heart of his plan is an invention which is engagingly
simple. Silver has devised a pair of glasses which rely on the principle that the fatter a lens the more powerful it becomes. Inside the device's tough plastic lenses are two clear circular sacs filled with fluid, each of which is connected to a small syringe attached to either arm of the spectacles.
The wearer adjusts a dial on the syringe to add or reduce amount of fluid in the membrane, thus changing the power of the lens. When the wearer is happy with the strength of each lens the membrane is sealed by twisting a small screw, and the syringes removed. The principle is so
simple, the team has discovered, that with very little guidance people are perfectly capable of
creating glasses to their own prescription.
Silver calls his flash of insight a "tremendous glimpse of the obvious" - namely that opticians
weren't necessary to provide glasses. This is a crucial factor in the developing world where trained specialists are desperately in demand: in Britain there is one optometrist for every 4,500 people, in sub-Saharan Africa the ratio is 1:1,000,000.
The implications of bringing glasses within the reach of poor communities are enormous, says
the scientist. Literacy rates improve hugely, fishermen are able to mend their nets, women to
weave clothing. During an early field trial, funded by the British government, in Ghana, Silver
met a man called Henry Adjei-Mensah, whose sight had deteriorated with age, as all human
sight does, and who had been forced to retire as a tailor because he could no longer see to
thread the needle of his sewing machine. "So he retires. He was about 35. He could have worked
for at least another 20 years. We put these specs on him, and he smiled, and threaded his
needle, and sped up with this sewing machine. He can work now. He can see."
"The reaction is universal," says Major Kevin White, formerly of the US military's humanitarian programme, who organised the distribution of thousands of pairs around the world after
discovering Silver's glasses on Google. "People put them on, and smile. They all say, 'Look, I can
read those tiny little letters.'"
Making and distributing a billion pairs of spectacles is no small task, of course - even at a dollar
each (the target cost), and without Silver taking any profit, the cost is eye-watering.
This is what Silver calls "the challenge of scaling up".
For the Indian project he has joined forces with Mehmood Khan, a businessman whose family
trust runs a humanitarian programme based in 500 villages in the northern state of Haryana,
from where he originates.
There will be no shortage of takers in the region, Khan says. "One million in one year is
straightaway peanuts for me. In the districts where we are working, one district alone will have
half a million people [who need the technology]." Khan's day job is as Global Leader of Innovation for Unilever, and though his employer will have no direct connection with the scheme, having contact with 150m consumers a day, as he points out, means he is used to dealing with large numbers.
But surely finding funding on this scale will be impossible? "I share a vision with Josh," says Khan.
"A thing like this, once it works, you create awareness, you enrol governments and the UN, and
the model becomes scaleable. People begin to believe." And from a business point of view, he
notes wryly, when poor people become more economically developed they also become potential
customers.
In addition to the enormous manufacturing and distribution challenges, Silver has one other
pressing problem, namely addressing the sole complaint about the glasses - their rather clunky
size and design.
"Work is going on on several new designs, and further work will be required to get the costs
down. The truth is that there is, at the moment, no device that can be made for a dollar in
volumes of 100 million.
"But I am entirely confident that we can do that."
Such is his determination, you wouldn't bet against it. Oxford University, at his instigation, has
agreed to host a Centre for Vision in the Developing World, which is about to begin working
on a World Bank-funded project with scientists from the US, China, Hong Kong and South Africa.
"Things are never simple. But I will solve this problem if I can. And I won't really let people
stand in my way."
Sphere: Related Blogs & Articles
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/29/science/29cheap.html
(1178)
Esther Addley
The Guardian, Monday 22 December 2008
Article history
A Zulu man wearing adaptive glasses. Photograph: Michael Lewis It was a chance conversation
on March 23 1985 ("in the afternoon, as I recall") that first started Josh Silver on his quest to
make the world's poor see. A professor of physics at Oxford University, Silver was idly discussing optical lenses with a colleague, wondering whether they might be adjusted without the need for expensive specialist equipment, when the lightbulb of inspiration first flickered above his head.
What if it were possible, he thought, to make a pair of glasses which, instead of requiring an
optician, could be "tuned" by the wearer to correct his or her own vision? Might it be possible
to bring affordable spectacles to millions who would never otherwise have them?
More than two decades after posing that question, Silver now feels he has the answer. The British inventor has embarked on a quest that is breathtakingly ambitious, but which he insists is achievable - to offer glasses to a billion of the world's poorest people by 2020.
Some 30,000 pairs of his spectacles have already been distributed in 15 countries, but to Silver
that is very small beer. Within the next year the now-retired professor and his team plan to
launch a trial in India which will, they hope, distribute 1 million pairs of glasses.
The target, within a few years, is 100 million pairs annually. With the global need for basic
sight-correction, by his own detailed research, estimated at more than half the world's population, Silver sees no reason to stop at a billion.
If the scale of his ambition is dazzling, at the heart of his plan is an invention which is engagingly
simple. Silver has devised a pair of glasses which rely on the principle that the fatter a lens the more powerful it becomes. Inside the device's tough plastic lenses are two clear circular sacs filled with fluid, each of which is connected to a small syringe attached to either arm of the spectacles.
The wearer adjusts a dial on the syringe to add or reduce amount of fluid in the membrane, thus changing the power of the lens. When the wearer is happy with the strength of each lens the membrane is sealed by twisting a small screw, and the syringes removed. The principle is so
simple, the team has discovered, that with very little guidance people are perfectly capable of
creating glasses to their own prescription.
Silver calls his flash of insight a "tremendous glimpse of the obvious" - namely that opticians
weren't necessary to provide glasses. This is a crucial factor in the developing world where trained specialists are desperately in demand: in Britain there is one optometrist for every 4,500 people, in sub-Saharan Africa the ratio is 1:1,000,000.
The implications of bringing glasses within the reach of poor communities are enormous, says
the scientist. Literacy rates improve hugely, fishermen are able to mend their nets, women to
weave clothing. During an early field trial, funded by the British government, in Ghana, Silver
met a man called Henry Adjei-Mensah, whose sight had deteriorated with age, as all human
sight does, and who had been forced to retire as a tailor because he could no longer see to
thread the needle of his sewing machine. "So he retires. He was about 35. He could have worked
for at least another 20 years. We put these specs on him, and he smiled, and threaded his
needle, and sped up with this sewing machine. He can work now. He can see."
"The reaction is universal," says Major Kevin White, formerly of the US military's humanitarian programme, who organised the distribution of thousands of pairs around the world after
discovering Silver's glasses on Google. "People put them on, and smile. They all say, 'Look, I can
read those tiny little letters.'"
Making and distributing a billion pairs of spectacles is no small task, of course - even at a dollar
each (the target cost), and without Silver taking any profit, the cost is eye-watering.
This is what Silver calls "the challenge of scaling up".
For the Indian project he has joined forces with Mehmood Khan, a businessman whose family
trust runs a humanitarian programme based in 500 villages in the northern state of Haryana,
from where he originates.
There will be no shortage of takers in the region, Khan says. "One million in one year is
straightaway peanuts for me. In the districts where we are working, one district alone will have
half a million people [who need the technology]." Khan's day job is as Global Leader of Innovation for Unilever, and though his employer will have no direct connection with the scheme, having contact with 150m consumers a day, as he points out, means he is used to dealing with large numbers.
But surely finding funding on this scale will be impossible? "I share a vision with Josh," says Khan.
"A thing like this, once it works, you create awareness, you enrol governments and the UN, and
the model becomes scaleable. People begin to believe." And from a business point of view, he
notes wryly, when poor people become more economically developed they also become potential
customers.
In addition to the enormous manufacturing and distribution challenges, Silver has one other
pressing problem, namely addressing the sole complaint about the glasses - their rather clunky
size and design.
"Work is going on on several new designs, and further work will be required to get the costs
down. The truth is that there is, at the moment, no device that can be made for a dollar in
volumes of 100 million.
"But I am entirely confident that we can do that."
Such is his determination, you wouldn't bet against it. Oxford University, at his instigation, has
agreed to host a Centre for Vision in the Developing World, which is about to begin working
on a World Bank-funded project with scientists from the US, China, Hong Kong and South Africa.
"Things are never simple. But I will solve this problem if I can. And I won't really let people
stand in my way."
Sphere: Related Blogs & Articles
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/29/science/29cheap.html
Example) Design for poor people : Q Drum.
Great inventor Dr. Paul Polak presented that a billion people in the world are expecting for a $2 pair of eyeglasses, a $10 solar lantern and a $100 house.
One of the simplest and yet most elegant designs tackles a job that millions of women and girls spend many hours doing each year - Feiching water, Balancing heavy jerry cans on the head may lead to elegant posture, but it is backbreaking work and sometimes causes cripping injuries. The Q-Drum, a circular jerry can, holds 20 gallons, and it rolls smoothly enough for a child to tow it on a rope.
One of the simplest and yet most elegant designs tackles a job that millions of women and girls spend many hours doing each year - Feiching water, Balancing heavy jerry cans on the head may lead to elegant posture, but it is backbreaking work and sometimes causes cripping injuries. The Q-Drum, a circular jerry can, holds 20 gallons, and it rolls smoothly enough for a child to tow it on a rope.
2010년 10월 11일 월요일
Cambodia Today
http://www.cambcomm.org.uk
Cambodia Today
In 1979, Cambodia hit the headlines as the horrors perpetrated during the Khmer Rouge regime were revealed. But that was a generation ago. Today the world has largely forgotten Cambodia as fresh tragedies have unfolded elsewhere. So has Cambodia recovered from its traumatic past?
Unhealed wounds
After nearly three decades of civil war, the Khmer Rouge are no more. Pol Pot is dead, other ageing leaders were arrested or pardoned, and the remaining Khmer Rouge soldiers defected to the Government side. Trials of former Khmer Rouge leaders may help close this chapter in Cambodia's history, or they may yet open fresh wounds.
Though war may have come to end, violent crime, including banditry, armed robbery and kidnapping, is rife. A culture of impunity and corruption denies justice to the poor and oppressed.
Millions of landmines remained in the ground at the end of the war. About 850 people died from injuries caused by landmines and unexploded ordnance each year from 2000 to 2005, but there are signs that the casualty rate may now be dropping. About 2,900 km2 of land remains covered with mines. Cambodia's prime minister has predicted that the country will not be clear of the devices until at least 2020.
Political strife
Following the 2003 general election it took almost a year for the two main political parties to form a coalition government. Rifts and realignments are a constant feature of political life.
The ruling Cambodian People's Party are firmly entrenched at every level of national and local government but Prime Minister Hun Sen has faced criticism over the bringing of law suits against opposition politicians.
Slow economic growth
Although Cambodia is a member of the Association of South East Asian Nations, it lags far behind some of its more prosperous neighbours. Foreign direct investment fell each year from 1998 to 2003, a symptom of the frustation that investors feel with Cambodia's seemingly endemic corruption.
The garment industry has been one of Cambodia's success stories. The International Labour Organisation has commended working conditions, though trade unions have complained of oppression of workers by some employers. The industry's future prosperity depends on Cambodia's ability to compete with manufacturers in other Asian countries such as China and Vietnam and to survive the drop in demand for its products resulting from the worldwide economic downturn.
The number of tourist arrivals increased steadily until 2008, but many tourists arrive in Siem Reap (a provincial town) by air, spend two or three days wisiting the Angkor temples, and then fly out again, seeing nothing of the rest of the country and contributing little to the economy. Tourist arrivals declined in 2009.
Poverty
Cambodia remains one of the poorest, least developed countries in Asia. Our Facts and Figures page reveals the degree to which Cambodia's standard of health, level of education, care for the environment and other indicators of quality of life need to be improved.
The gap between rich and poor is widening rapidly.
It is the rural poor who suffer when floods and drought occur, or when illegal logging causes environmental damage.
Challenges
How Cambodian Communities out of Crisis is helping young Cambodians obtain a better education
Challenges faced by Cambodia today include:
achieving a measure of political consensus with a viable opposition;
reducing corruption and creating a competent and impartial judiciary;
establishing a fair way of resolving land disputes;
reducing the trafficking and abuse of illegal drugs;
achieving millennium development goals;
stimulating foreign investment and economic growth;
conducting trials of former Khmer Rouge leaders and achieving some kind of closure to the tragic events of 1975-1979.
Cambodia Today
In 1979, Cambodia hit the headlines as the horrors perpetrated during the Khmer Rouge regime were revealed. But that was a generation ago. Today the world has largely forgotten Cambodia as fresh tragedies have unfolded elsewhere. So has Cambodia recovered from its traumatic past?
Unhealed wounds
After nearly three decades of civil war, the Khmer Rouge are no more. Pol Pot is dead, other ageing leaders were arrested or pardoned, and the remaining Khmer Rouge soldiers defected to the Government side. Trials of former Khmer Rouge leaders may help close this chapter in Cambodia's history, or they may yet open fresh wounds.
Though war may have come to end, violent crime, including banditry, armed robbery and kidnapping, is rife. A culture of impunity and corruption denies justice to the poor and oppressed.
Millions of landmines remained in the ground at the end of the war. About 850 people died from injuries caused by landmines and unexploded ordnance each year from 2000 to 2005, but there are signs that the casualty rate may now be dropping. About 2,900 km2 of land remains covered with mines. Cambodia's prime minister has predicted that the country will not be clear of the devices until at least 2020.
Political strife
Following the 2003 general election it took almost a year for the two main political parties to form a coalition government. Rifts and realignments are a constant feature of political life.
The ruling Cambodian People's Party are firmly entrenched at every level of national and local government but Prime Minister Hun Sen has faced criticism over the bringing of law suits against opposition politicians.
Slow economic growth
Although Cambodia is a member of the Association of South East Asian Nations, it lags far behind some of its more prosperous neighbours. Foreign direct investment fell each year from 1998 to 2003, a symptom of the frustation that investors feel with Cambodia's seemingly endemic corruption.
The garment industry has been one of Cambodia's success stories. The International Labour Organisation has commended working conditions, though trade unions have complained of oppression of workers by some employers. The industry's future prosperity depends on Cambodia's ability to compete with manufacturers in other Asian countries such as China and Vietnam and to survive the drop in demand for its products resulting from the worldwide economic downturn.
The number of tourist arrivals increased steadily until 2008, but many tourists arrive in Siem Reap (a provincial town) by air, spend two or three days wisiting the Angkor temples, and then fly out again, seeing nothing of the rest of the country and contributing little to the economy. Tourist arrivals declined in 2009.
Poverty
Cambodia remains one of the poorest, least developed countries in Asia. Our Facts and Figures page reveals the degree to which Cambodia's standard of health, level of education, care for the environment and other indicators of quality of life need to be improved.
The gap between rich and poor is widening rapidly.
It is the rural poor who suffer when floods and drought occur, or when illegal logging causes environmental damage.
Challenges
How Cambodian Communities out of Crisis is helping young Cambodians obtain a better education
Challenges faced by Cambodia today include:
achieving a measure of political consensus with a viable opposition;
reducing corruption and creating a competent and impartial judiciary;
establishing a fair way of resolving land disputes;
reducing the trafficking and abuse of illegal drugs;
achieving millennium development goals;
stimulating foreign investment and economic growth;
conducting trials of former Khmer Rouge leaders and achieving some kind of closure to the tragic events of 1975-1979.
History of Cambodia
Cambodia's History
Angkor Wat, constructed in the early to mid 12th century: symbol of Cambodia's nationhood
Cambodia's history can be traced back to the Stone Age. The Khmer people formed powerful kingdoms between the ninth and twelfth centuries, constructing a vast capital city and temple complex at Angkor, but their empire then declined and for 600 years Cambodia had feuds with Thailand and Vietnam. A French protectorate from the mid-19th century, Cambodia fell under Japanese authority during World War II, finally gaining independence from France in 1954.
From 1955 to 1970 the Kingdom of Cambodia was ruled by Prince Norodom Sihanouk. Sihanouk had been king since 1941, but he abdicated in 1955 in order to further his aim to establish Cambodia as a constitutional monarchy. Sihanouk formed a political party, led it to victory and became Prime Minister. He was elected as Head of State in 1960. In 1963 left-wing opponents of Sihanouk (including Saloth Sar, who changed his name to Pol Pot) fled Phnom Penh, the capital, for the jungles and mountains of Cambodia and established the Communist Party of Kampuchea (the Khmer Rouge).
In 1969 United States bombings of Cambodia began, largely in secret, aimed at Vietnamese communist base camps on Cambodian territory.
Gathering storm
1970
Head of State, Prince Norodom Sihanouk, is deposed in a coup d'état led by General Lon Nol. Sihanouk forms a United Front with his former enemies, the Khmer Rouge, to oppose the Lon Nol regime. US and South Vietnamese troops invade Cambodia, without Lon Nol's knowledge or approval, in order to attack communist bases. US troops withdraw after two months.
1972
Two million Cambodians are made homeless by escalating war between Lon Nol and the Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot.
1973
Massive US bombing raids in Cambodia are terminated by act of Congress. More than a million people and two-thirds of Cambodia's draught animals have been killed, wounded or maimed since bombing started in 1965. The US has dropped 2,756,941 tons of bombs, more than all the bombs dropped by the Allies during World War II, in 230,516 sorties on 113,716 sites. Nearly half the population have been uprooted and displaced within their own country.
Holocaust
1975
Lon Nol flees to Hawaii. On 17 April the Khmer Rouge enter Phnom Penh and establish the government of Democratic Kampuchea (DK). Entire populations of major cities are forced into hard labour in the countryside. The Cambodian holocaust begins. Sihanouk returns to Phnom Penh as Head of State.
1976
Sihanouk resigns and remains virtually under house arrest.
1977
Heavy fighting on the Kampuchea-Vietnam border begins when DK troops launch cross-border raids.
1978
Heng Samrin, a Khmer Rouge officer, and others stage an unsuccessful uprising against the Pol Pot regime, then flee to Vietnam. Vietnam invades Kampuchea on Christmas Day.
Aftermath
1979
Phnom Penh is captured by the Vietnamese, who install Heng Samrin as President of the People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK). The PRK is not recognised by the United Nations, and DK (still led by Pol Pot) occupies Cambodia's seat at the UN General Assembly. The Khmer Rouge are driven towards the Thai border. Conflict and famine cause Cambodians to flee to Thailand. The extent of Khmer Rouge atrocities becomes evident: up to at least 1.7 million inhabitants have perished; Cambodia's infrastructure is in ruins — no currency, no financial institutions, no postal system, no telephones, virtually no sanitation, clean water or electricity; 45 doctors remain out of the 450 practising before 1975; 7,000 out of 20,000 teachers have survived; no schools; books burned.
1979-1981
Chaos prevents normal rice planting: the 1979/80 harvest is only one third of the usual output. An international humanitarian relief effort is set up. Kampuchea's political isolation from the West continues.
1982
The Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (CGDK) is formed between DK, the Khmer People's National Liberation Front (KPNLF - formed from the remnants of Lon Nol's government) and the Front Uni National pour un Cambodge Indépendant, Neutre, Pacifique, Economique et Coopératif [United Front for an Independent, Peaceful and Co-operative Cambodia] (FUNCINPEC - led by Sihanouk). The CGDK occupies Kampuchea's seat at the UN General Assembly.
1983
Member states of the United Nations declare the 'Kampuchean emergency' to be over, despite outspoken statements by the UN secretariat that it is not. Most UN donor governments impose a 'development aid' embargo on Kampuchea.
1984-1985
Fighting between the PRK and DK drives more refugees into Thailand. DK forces begin to disperse and conduct guerrilla warfare over a wider area of Kampuchea.
1989
The PRK adopts a liberal democratic constitution and establishes the State of Cambodia with Hun Sen (an ex-Khmer Rouge officer who fled to Vietnam with Heng Samrin) as Prime Minister. Vietnamese troops withdraw. Buddhism is reinstated as the national religion.
A new start
1991
The Paris Peace Agreement is signed by all factions. A Supreme National Council is established with Prince Sihanouk as chairman. Political isolation ends.
1992
The United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia is established. Repatriation of 360,000 Cambodians in Thai border camps begins. The Khmer Rouge withdraw from the democratic process.
1993
Elections take place without Khmer Rouge participation. A coalition government is established, led by Prince Norodom Ranariddh (FUNCINPEC) and Hun Sen (Cambodian People's Party, formerly People's Revolutionary Party of Kampuchea) as First and Second Prime Ministers respectively. Cambodia becomes a constitutional monarchy with King Norodom Sihanouk as Head of State. The government is recognised internationally. Fighting resumes between the government army and the Khmer Rouge.
1996
Division becomes increasingly evident in the coalition. Rumours of Pol Pot's death circulate. The Khmer Rouge splits into factions, some of which surrender to the Cambodian government.
Political turmoil
1997
Pol Pot is captured by a faction of the Khmer Rouge. On the advice of his generals First Prime Minister Prince Norodom Ranariddh leaves Cambodia. Second Prime Minister Hun Sen accuses Ranariddh of collaborating with the Khmer Rouge and seizes control of the government, effectively staging a coup d'état.
1998
Prince Norodom Ranariddh is found guilty of arms smuggling and collaborating with the Khmer Rouge, but he receives a royal pardon. As the Khmer Rouge disintegrates, losing more and more ground to government forces, Pol Pot dies of a heart attack. Four months after an inconclusive general election Hun Sen and Norodom Ranariddh conclude a power-sharing agreement.
1999
A measure of political stability returns to Cambodia, which is admitted to membership of the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN). The remnant of the Khmer Rouge surrender.
2000
347 people die, 318,000 homes are destroyed and two million people are affected in the worst flooding in Cambodia for 40 years.
2002
Cambodia successfully hosts the ASEAN Summit and ASEAN Tourism Forum. For the first time a senior Khmer Rouge leader is found guilty of a crime in a court of law (in connection with the kidnapping and murder of three Western backpackers in 1994).
2003
Relations between Cambodia and Thailand are strained after a mob burns down the Thai embassy in Phnom Penh and wrecks Thai-owned business premises. Cambodia is admitted to the World Trade Organisation. The Cambodian People's Party wins the most seats in a general election but not enough to form a government without a coalition partner.
A strong hand
2004
Eleven months after the 2003 general election the leaders of the Cambodian People's Party and FUNCINPEC finally agree on the formation of a coalition governent. The National Assembly passes legislation to enable trials to take place of former Khmer Rouge leaders. King Norodom Sihanouk abdicates and is succeeded by his son Norodom Sihamoni.
2005
The National Assembly votes to remove parliamentary immunity from three opposition members. One is arrested and the other two, including Sam Rainsy, leader of the Sam Rainsy party, flee the country. The military court's jurisdiction is extended to cover any case "regarding the violation of people's security." Prime Minister Hun Sen sues several opponents for defamation (a criminal offence), while others leave the country, fearing arrest because of their opposition to a controversial border treaty with Vietnam.
2006
The Prime Minister drops charges for defamation and the King issues royal pardons, resulting in the release of those imprisoned in 2005 and the return to Cambodia of Sam Rainsy. The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia for the Prosecution of Crimes Committed during the Period of Democratic Kampuchea begin preparations for a trial of former Khmer Rouge leaders. The constitution is amended to enable a party obtaining a simple majority at a general election to form a government. Prince Norodom Ranariddh is ousted from his position as head of FUNCINPEC and removed from his seat in the National Assembly.
2007
The Cambodian People's Party wins an overwhelming victory in elections for commune chiefs. Five former high-ranking officials of the Khmer Rouge are charged with crimes against humanity. The Cambodian economy enjoys a high growth rate with steadily increasing revenues in the garment and tourism industries. Revenue from offshore oil production is expected to make a significant contribution to the economy, peaking in 2021.
2008
In a general election, the Cambodian People's Party wins 90 seats in Cambodia's 123-seat National Assembly. Preliminary hearings take place in preparation for the trials of the five Khmer Rouge officilas held in custody. Cambodian and Thai troops facing off along a disputed border near the Preah Vihear temple, which had recently been listed as a World Heritage site, exchange fire. Consumer price inflation hits 22%.
2009
The trial of former Khmer Rouge prison direcor Kaing Khek Ieu (also known as Duch) takes place in the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia for the Prosecution of Crimes Committed during the Period of Democratic Kampuchea. Diplomatic relations between Cambodia and Thailand deteriorate further when Cambodia's Prime Minister offers fugitive former Thai premier Thaksin Shinawatra a job as an economic adviser.
Angkor Wat, constructed in the early to mid 12th century: symbol of Cambodia's nationhood
Cambodia's history can be traced back to the Stone Age. The Khmer people formed powerful kingdoms between the ninth and twelfth centuries, constructing a vast capital city and temple complex at Angkor, but their empire then declined and for 600 years Cambodia had feuds with Thailand and Vietnam. A French protectorate from the mid-19th century, Cambodia fell under Japanese authority during World War II, finally gaining independence from France in 1954.
From 1955 to 1970 the Kingdom of Cambodia was ruled by Prince Norodom Sihanouk. Sihanouk had been king since 1941, but he abdicated in 1955 in order to further his aim to establish Cambodia as a constitutional monarchy. Sihanouk formed a political party, led it to victory and became Prime Minister. He was elected as Head of State in 1960. In 1963 left-wing opponents of Sihanouk (including Saloth Sar, who changed his name to Pol Pot) fled Phnom Penh, the capital, for the jungles and mountains of Cambodia and established the Communist Party of Kampuchea (the Khmer Rouge).
In 1969 United States bombings of Cambodia began, largely in secret, aimed at Vietnamese communist base camps on Cambodian territory.
Gathering storm
1970
Head of State, Prince Norodom Sihanouk, is deposed in a coup d'état led by General Lon Nol. Sihanouk forms a United Front with his former enemies, the Khmer Rouge, to oppose the Lon Nol regime. US and South Vietnamese troops invade Cambodia, without Lon Nol's knowledge or approval, in order to attack communist bases. US troops withdraw after two months.
1972
Two million Cambodians are made homeless by escalating war between Lon Nol and the Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot.
1973
Massive US bombing raids in Cambodia are terminated by act of Congress. More than a million people and two-thirds of Cambodia's draught animals have been killed, wounded or maimed since bombing started in 1965. The US has dropped 2,756,941 tons of bombs, more than all the bombs dropped by the Allies during World War II, in 230,516 sorties on 113,716 sites. Nearly half the population have been uprooted and displaced within their own country.
Holocaust
1975
Lon Nol flees to Hawaii. On 17 April the Khmer Rouge enter Phnom Penh and establish the government of Democratic Kampuchea (DK). Entire populations of major cities are forced into hard labour in the countryside. The Cambodian holocaust begins. Sihanouk returns to Phnom Penh as Head of State.
1976
Sihanouk resigns and remains virtually under house arrest.
1977
Heavy fighting on the Kampuchea-Vietnam border begins when DK troops launch cross-border raids.
1978
Heng Samrin, a Khmer Rouge officer, and others stage an unsuccessful uprising against the Pol Pot regime, then flee to Vietnam. Vietnam invades Kampuchea on Christmas Day.
Aftermath
1979
Phnom Penh is captured by the Vietnamese, who install Heng Samrin as President of the People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK). The PRK is not recognised by the United Nations, and DK (still led by Pol Pot) occupies Cambodia's seat at the UN General Assembly. The Khmer Rouge are driven towards the Thai border. Conflict and famine cause Cambodians to flee to Thailand. The extent of Khmer Rouge atrocities becomes evident: up to at least 1.7 million inhabitants have perished; Cambodia's infrastructure is in ruins — no currency, no financial institutions, no postal system, no telephones, virtually no sanitation, clean water or electricity; 45 doctors remain out of the 450 practising before 1975; 7,000 out of 20,000 teachers have survived; no schools; books burned.
1979-1981
Chaos prevents normal rice planting: the 1979/80 harvest is only one third of the usual output. An international humanitarian relief effort is set up. Kampuchea's political isolation from the West continues.
1982
The Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (CGDK) is formed between DK, the Khmer People's National Liberation Front (KPNLF - formed from the remnants of Lon Nol's government) and the Front Uni National pour un Cambodge Indépendant, Neutre, Pacifique, Economique et Coopératif [United Front for an Independent, Peaceful and Co-operative Cambodia] (FUNCINPEC - led by Sihanouk). The CGDK occupies Kampuchea's seat at the UN General Assembly.
1983
Member states of the United Nations declare the 'Kampuchean emergency' to be over, despite outspoken statements by the UN secretariat that it is not. Most UN donor governments impose a 'development aid' embargo on Kampuchea.
1984-1985
Fighting between the PRK and DK drives more refugees into Thailand. DK forces begin to disperse and conduct guerrilla warfare over a wider area of Kampuchea.
1989
The PRK adopts a liberal democratic constitution and establishes the State of Cambodia with Hun Sen (an ex-Khmer Rouge officer who fled to Vietnam with Heng Samrin) as Prime Minister. Vietnamese troops withdraw. Buddhism is reinstated as the national religion.
A new start
1991
The Paris Peace Agreement is signed by all factions. A Supreme National Council is established with Prince Sihanouk as chairman. Political isolation ends.
1992
The United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia is established. Repatriation of 360,000 Cambodians in Thai border camps begins. The Khmer Rouge withdraw from the democratic process.
1993
Elections take place without Khmer Rouge participation. A coalition government is established, led by Prince Norodom Ranariddh (FUNCINPEC) and Hun Sen (Cambodian People's Party, formerly People's Revolutionary Party of Kampuchea) as First and Second Prime Ministers respectively. Cambodia becomes a constitutional monarchy with King Norodom Sihanouk as Head of State. The government is recognised internationally. Fighting resumes between the government army and the Khmer Rouge.
1996
Division becomes increasingly evident in the coalition. Rumours of Pol Pot's death circulate. The Khmer Rouge splits into factions, some of which surrender to the Cambodian government.
Political turmoil
1997
Pol Pot is captured by a faction of the Khmer Rouge. On the advice of his generals First Prime Minister Prince Norodom Ranariddh leaves Cambodia. Second Prime Minister Hun Sen accuses Ranariddh of collaborating with the Khmer Rouge and seizes control of the government, effectively staging a coup d'état.
1998
Prince Norodom Ranariddh is found guilty of arms smuggling and collaborating with the Khmer Rouge, but he receives a royal pardon. As the Khmer Rouge disintegrates, losing more and more ground to government forces, Pol Pot dies of a heart attack. Four months after an inconclusive general election Hun Sen and Norodom Ranariddh conclude a power-sharing agreement.
1999
A measure of political stability returns to Cambodia, which is admitted to membership of the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN). The remnant of the Khmer Rouge surrender.
2000
347 people die, 318,000 homes are destroyed and two million people are affected in the worst flooding in Cambodia for 40 years.
2002
Cambodia successfully hosts the ASEAN Summit and ASEAN Tourism Forum. For the first time a senior Khmer Rouge leader is found guilty of a crime in a court of law (in connection with the kidnapping and murder of three Western backpackers in 1994).
2003
Relations between Cambodia and Thailand are strained after a mob burns down the Thai embassy in Phnom Penh and wrecks Thai-owned business premises. Cambodia is admitted to the World Trade Organisation. The Cambodian People's Party wins the most seats in a general election but not enough to form a government without a coalition partner.
A strong hand
2004
Eleven months after the 2003 general election the leaders of the Cambodian People's Party and FUNCINPEC finally agree on the formation of a coalition governent. The National Assembly passes legislation to enable trials to take place of former Khmer Rouge leaders. King Norodom Sihanouk abdicates and is succeeded by his son Norodom Sihamoni.
2005
The National Assembly votes to remove parliamentary immunity from three opposition members. One is arrested and the other two, including Sam Rainsy, leader of the Sam Rainsy party, flee the country. The military court's jurisdiction is extended to cover any case "regarding the violation of people's security." Prime Minister Hun Sen sues several opponents for defamation (a criminal offence), while others leave the country, fearing arrest because of their opposition to a controversial border treaty with Vietnam.
2006
The Prime Minister drops charges for defamation and the King issues royal pardons, resulting in the release of those imprisoned in 2005 and the return to Cambodia of Sam Rainsy. The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia for the Prosecution of Crimes Committed during the Period of Democratic Kampuchea begin preparations for a trial of former Khmer Rouge leaders. The constitution is amended to enable a party obtaining a simple majority at a general election to form a government. Prince Norodom Ranariddh is ousted from his position as head of FUNCINPEC and removed from his seat in the National Assembly.
2007
The Cambodian People's Party wins an overwhelming victory in elections for commune chiefs. Five former high-ranking officials of the Khmer Rouge are charged with crimes against humanity. The Cambodian economy enjoys a high growth rate with steadily increasing revenues in the garment and tourism industries. Revenue from offshore oil production is expected to make a significant contribution to the economy, peaking in 2021.
2008
In a general election, the Cambodian People's Party wins 90 seats in Cambodia's 123-seat National Assembly. Preliminary hearings take place in preparation for the trials of the five Khmer Rouge officilas held in custody. Cambodian and Thai troops facing off along a disputed border near the Preah Vihear temple, which had recently been listed as a World Heritage site, exchange fire. Consumer price inflation hits 22%.
2009
The trial of former Khmer Rouge prison direcor Kaing Khek Ieu (also known as Duch) takes place in the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia for the Prosecution of Crimes Committed during the Period of Democratic Kampuchea. Diplomatic relations between Cambodia and Thailand deteriorate further when Cambodia's Prime Minister offers fugitive former Thai premier Thaksin Shinawatra a job as an economic adviser.
First disccusion for Typology
Member : James, Petra, Lucia, Wonsang, Sinea
Just little bit modified subject.
Subject : Personal transportation for Cambodia
Typology : wheels + Chairs
Concern Points : What is the problem with Cambodia?
What is the need of them?
What is the speciality material for wheelchair?
How many types of tire in there?
How many types of personal transportation?
Making Map for range of wheelchair
Searching Material in Cambodia
Just little bit modified subject.
Subject : Personal transportation for Cambodia
Typology : wheels + Chairs
Concern Points : What is the problem with Cambodia?
What is the need of them?
What is the speciality material for wheelchair?
How many types of tire in there?
How many types of personal transportation?
Making Map for range of wheelchair
Searching Material in Cambodia
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